The Is the Basic Means of Organizing Rhythm or Durational Aspects of Indian Art Music

Aspect of music

Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός , rhythmos, "whatsoever regular recurring motion, symmetry"^[1]) generally means a "movement marked past the regulated succession of potent and weak elements, or of contrary or different conditions".^[2] This full general significant of regular recurrence or blueprint in time can apply to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to several seconds (as with the riff in a rock music song); to several minutes or hours, or, at the near farthermost, even over many years.

Rhythm is related to and distinguished from pulse, meter, and beats:

Rhythm may be defined as the mode in which one or more unaccented beats are grouped in relation to an accented ane. ... A rhythmic group can be apprehended merely when its elements are distinguished from i another, rhythm...always involves an interrelationship between a single, accented (strong) beat and either i or two unaccented (weak) beats.^[3]

In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human scale; of musical sounds and silences that occur over fourth dimension, of the steps of a trip the light fantastic, or the meter of spoken linguistic communication and poetry. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the rhythmic delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the fashion. Rhythm may besides refer to visual presentation, as "timed movement through space"^[iv] and a mutual language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. For example, architects oft speak of the rhythm of a building, referring to patterns in the spacing of windows, columns, and other elements of the façade.^{[ commendation needed ]} In recent years, rhythm and meter have go an of import area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston,^[5] Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff,^[6] Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty,^[seven] Godfried Toussaint,^[viii] William Rothstein,^[9] Joel Lester,^[ten] and Guerino Mazzola.

Anthropology [edit]

Percussion instruments have clearly defined sounds that assistance the creation and perception of complex rhythms.

In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk and the heartbeat.^[11] Other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which as well influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers propose that since certain features of human music are widespread, it is "reasonable to doubtable that beat-based rhythmic processing has ancient evolutionary roots".^[12] Justin London writes that musical metre "involves our initial perception also as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstruse from the rhythm surface of the music as it unfolds in time".^[13] The "perception" and "abstraction" of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, every bit when we split a serial of identical clock-ticks into "tick-tock-tick-tock".^{[14] [15]}

A simple [quadr]duple drum pattern, which lays a foundation of elapsing common in popular music.

Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was adult in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural pick.^[16] Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, but just humans have the ability to be engaged (entrained) in rhythmically coordinated vocalizations and other activities. According to Jordania, development of the sense of rhythm was central for the achievement of the specific neurological state of the boxing trance, crucial for the development of the constructive defence force system of early hominids. Rhythmic state of war cry, rhythmic drumming by shamans, rhythmic drilling of the soldiers and contemporary professional person combat forces listening to the heavy rhythmic rock music^[17] all employ the power of rhythm to unite human individuals into a shared commonage identity where group members put the interests of the group above their individual interests and safe.

Some types of parrots can know rhythm.^[18] Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation of rhythm yet posits that human affinity for rhythm is key, and so that a person's sense of rhythm cannot exist lost (e.g. by stroke). "There is not a single report of an animate being being trained to tap, peck, or motility in synchrony with an auditory beat",^[xix] Sacks write, "No doubt many pet lovers volition dispute this notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lipizzaner horses of the Castilian Riding School of Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. It is not clear whether they are doing then or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans effectually them."^[20] Human rhythmic arts are possibly to some extent rooted in courtship ritual.^[21]

Compound triple drum blueprint: divides iii beats into three; contains repetition on three levels

The institution of a basic beat requires the perception of a regular sequence of singled-out short-duration pulses and, every bit a subjective perception of loudness is relative to groundwork noise levels, a pulse must disuse to silence before the next occurs if it is to be really singled-out. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm. Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one fourth dimension signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan.

For data on rhythm in Indian music see Tala (music). For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabic music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and Dumbek rhythms.

Terminology [edit]

Pulse, shell and measure [edit]

Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division levels in a higher place and multiple levels below.

As a piece of music unfolds, its rhythmic construction is perceived non as a series of detached contained units strung together in a mechanical, additive, way like beads [or "pulses"], but equally an organic process in which smaller rhythmic motives, whole possessing a shape and construction of their own, also function every bit integral parts of a larger ["architectonic"] rhythmic organization.^[22]

Most music, dance and oral poetry establishes and maintains an underlying "metric level", a bones unit of time that may be aural or implied, the pulse or tactus of the mensural level,^{[23] [six] [24]} or beat level, sometimes but called the beat. This consists of a (repeating) series of identical yet distinct periodic brusk-elapsing stimuli perceived as points in fourth dimension.^[25] The "crush" pulse is not necessarily the fastest or the slowest component of the rhythm simply the one that is perceived as fundamental: it has a tempo to which listeners entrain equally they tap their foot or dance to a slice of music.^[26] Information technology is currently almost oftentimes designated equally a crotchet or quarter annotation in western notation (see time signature). Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels.^[25] Maury Yeston clarified "Rhythms of recurrence" arise from the interaction of two levels of move, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups.^[27] "Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, every bit listeners, will maintain that organization as long equally minimal evidence is present".^[28]

Unit and gesture [edit]

Rhythmic units: division level shown above and rhythmic units shown beneath

A durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. These may be classified as:

• Metric – even patterns, such as steady eighth notes or pulses;
• Intrametric – confirming patterns, such as dotted eighth-sixteenth annotation and swing patterns;
• Contrametric – non-confirming, or syncopated patterns; and
• Extrametric – irregular patterns, such every bit tuplets.

A rhythmic gesture is whatsoever durational pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit, does non occupy a flow of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. It may be described according to its starting time and ending or by the rhythmic units it contains. Rhythms that brainstorm on a strong pulse are thetic, those get-go on a weak pulse are anacrustic and those get-go after a residual or tied-over note are called initial residuum. Endings on a strong pulse are stiff, on a weak pulse, weak and those that terminate on a potent or weak upbeat are upbeat.^[29]

Alternation and repetition [edit]

Rhythm is marked by the regulated succession of opposite elements: the dynamics of the strong and weak beat out, the played shell and the inaudible but unsaid rest crush, or the long and short note. Too as perceiving rhythm humans must be able to anticipate it. This depends on repetition of a pattern that is short enough to memorize.

The alternation of the stiff and weak beat is fundamental to the aboriginal linguistic communication of poesy, trip the light fantastic and music. The common poetic term "foot" refers, equally in trip the light fantastic, to the lifting and tapping of the foot in time. In a like manner musicians speak of an upbeat and a downbeat and of the "on" and "off" beat. These contrasts naturally facilitate a dual bureaucracy of rhythm and depend on repeating patterns of elapsing, accent and rest forming a "pulse-grouping" that corresponds to the poetic foot. Unremarkably such pulse-groups are defined by taking the most accented beat out every bit the commencement and counting the pulses until the next accent.^[thirty]Scholes 1977b A rhythm that accents another vanquish and de-emphasises the downbeat every bit established or assumed from the melody or from a preceding rhythm is called syncopated rhythm.

Normally, even the virtually complex of meters may be broken downwards into a chain of duple and triple pulses^{[30] [xiv]} either by addition or sectionalisation. According to Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four, in western music, are "simply not natural".^[31]

Tempo and elapsing [edit]

The tempo of the piece is the speed or frequency of the tactus, a measure out of how chop-chop the beat flows. This is often measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm): 60 bpm means a speed of ane beat per 2d, a frequency of 1 Hz. A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern that has a period equivalent to a pulse or several pulses.^[32] The elapsing of any such unit is inversely related to its tempo.

Musical sound may be analyzed on 5 dissimilar time scales, which Moravscik has arranged in order of increasing duration.^[33]

• Supershort: a single cycle of an aural wave, approximately 1⁄xxx – 1⁄10,000 second (xxx–10,000 Hz or more than 1,800 bpm). These, though rhythmic in nature, are not perceived every bit separate events but as continuous musical pitch.
• Short: of the order of one second (1 Hz, 60 bpm, 10–100,000 audio cycles). Musical tempo is by and large specified in the range 40 to 240 beats per minute. A continuous pulse cannot be perceived as a musical shell if it is faster than viii–10 per 2nd (8–10 Hz, 480–600 bpm) or slower than ane per ane.five–2 seconds (0.vi–0.5 Hz, 40–xxx bpm). Too fast a vanquish becomes a drone, too wearisome a succession of sounds seems unconnected.^[34] This time frame roughly corresponds to the human being heart rate and to the elapsing of a single step, syllable or rhythmic gesture.
• Medium: ≥ few seconds, this median durational level "defines rhythm in music"^[33] as it allows the definition of a rhythmic unit, the arrangement of an entire sequence of accented, unaccented and silent or "residual" pulses into the cells of a mensurate that may give ascension to the "briefest intelligible and self-existent musical unit",^[15] a motif or figure. This may be further organized, past repetition and variation, into a definite phrase that may characterise an entire genre of music, trip the light fantastic toe or poetry and that may exist regarded every bit the key formal unit of music.^[35]
• Long: ≥ many seconds or a minute, corresponding to a durational unit that "consists of musical phrases"^[33]—which may brand up a tune, a formal section, a poetic stanza or a characteristic sequence of dance moves and steps. Thus the temporal regularity of musical organisation includes the most elementary levels of musical class.^[36]
• Very long: ≥ minutes or many hours, musical compositions or subdivisions of compositions.

Curtis Roads^[37] takes a wider view by distinguishing 9-time scales, this fourth dimension in gild of decreasing elapsing. The kickoff two, the infinite and the supra musical, encompass natural periodicities of months, years, decades, centuries, and greater, while the final three, the sample and subsample, which have business relationship of digital and electronic rates "too brief to be properly recorded or perceived", measured in millionths of seconds (microseconds), and finally the infinitesimal or infinitely cursory, are once more in the extra-musical domain. Roads' Macro level, encompassing "overall musical architecture or course" roughly corresponds to Moravcsik'south "very long" division while his Meso level, the level of "divisions of class" including movements, sections, phrases taking seconds or minutes, is also like to Moravcsik's "long" category. Roads' Sound object:^{[38] [ incomplete brusk commendation ] [39] [ incomplete short citation ]} "a basic unit of measurement of musical structure" and a generalization of note (Xenakis' mini structural time calibration); fraction of a 2d to several seconds, and his Microsound (meet granular synthesis) down to the threshold of aural perception; thousandths to millionths of seconds, are similarly comparable to Moravcsik'south "brusk" and "supershort" levels of elapsing.

Rhythm–tempo interaction [edit]

One difficulty in defining rhythm is the dependence of its perception on tempo, and, conversely, the dependence of tempo perception on rhythm. Furthermore, the rhythm–tempo interaction is context dependent, as explained by Andranik Tangian using an example of the leading rhythm of ″Promenade″ from Moussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition:(^{[40] [41]}

This rhythm is perceived as it is rather than as the beginning three events repeated at a double tempo (denoted equally R012 = echo from 0, once, twice faster):

R012

Notwithstanding, the motive with this rhythm in the Moussorgsky's slice

is rather perceived as a repeat

R012

This context-dependent perception of rhythm is explained by the principle of correlative perception, according to which data are perceived in the simplest way. From the viewpoint of Kolmogorov'southward complexity theory, this means such a representation of the information that minimizes the amount of memory.

The example considered suggests 2 alternative representations of the same rhythm: as it is, and equally the rhythm-tempo interaction – a two-level representation in terms of a generative rhythmic blueprint and a "tempo curve". Table i displays these possibilities both with and without pitch, bold that ane duration requires one byte of information, one byte is needed for the pitch of i tone, and invoking the echo algorithm with its parameters R012 takes iv bytes. As shown in the lesser row of the table, the rhythm without pitch requires fewer bytes if it is "perceived" every bit information technology is, without repetitions and tempo leaps. On the contrary, its melodic version requires fewer bytes if the rhythm is "perceived" as existence repeated at a double tempo.

Complexity of representation of time events

	Rhythm only			Rhythm with pitch
	Complete coding	Coding as echo		Consummate coding	Coding as echo
		R012			R012
Complexity of rhythmic pattern	half dozen bytes	3 bytes		12 bytes	half-dozen bytes
Complication of its transformation	0 bytes	4 bytes		0 bytes	4 bytes
Total complication	6 bytes	vii bytes		12 bytes	10 bytes

Thus, the loop of interdependence of rhythm and tempo is overcome due to the simplicity benchmark, which "optimally" distributes the complexity of perception between rhythm and tempo. In the to a higher place instance, the repetition is recognized considering of boosted repetition of the melodic profile, which results in a certain redundancy of the musical structure, making the recognition of the rhythmic pattern "robust" under tempo deviations. Generally speaking, the more redundant the "musical support" of a rhythmic design, the amend its recognizability under augmentations and diminutions, that is, its distortions are perceived equally tempo variations rather than rhythmic changes:

Past taking into account melodic context, homogeneity of accompaniment, harmonic pulsation, and other cues, the range of admissible tempo deviations tin can be extended further, however all the same not preventing musically normal perception. For example, Skrjabin's own performance of his Verse form op. 32 no. 1 transcribed from a piano-curl recording contains tempo deviations within . = 19/119, a span of 5.5 times.^[42] Such tempo deviations are strictly prohibited, for instance, in Bulgarian or Turkish music based on so-called condiment rhythms with complex elapsing ratios, which can also be explained past the principle of correlativity of perception. If a rhythm is not structurally redundant, then even minor tempo deviations are non perceived as accelerando or ritardando merely rather given an impression of a change in rhythm, which implies an inadequate perception of musical pregnant.^[43]

Metric construction [edit]

Notation of a clave rhythm pattern: Each jail cell of the filigree corresponds to a fixed duration of time with a resolution fine enough to capture the timing of the pattern, which may be counted as two bars of four beats in divisive (metrical or symmetrical) rhythm, each shell divided into two cells. The showtime bar of the design may also usefully exist counted additively (in measured or asymmetrical rhythm) as 3 + three + 2 .

The written report of rhythm, stress, and pitch in voice communication is called prosody (see as well: prosody (music)): it is a topic in linguistics and poetics, where information technology means the number of lines in a verse, the number of syllables in each line and the arrangement of those syllables as long or short, absolute or unaccented. Music inherited the term "meter or metre" from the terminology of poetry.^{[14] [15] [44]})

The metric structure of music includes meter, tempo and all other rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity against which the foreground details or durational patterns of the music are projected.^[45] The terminology of western music is notoriously imprecise in this expanse.^[14] MacPherson preferred to speak of "time" and "rhythmic shape",^[36] Imogen Holst of "measured rhythm".^[46]

Dance music has instantly recognizable patterns of beats congenital upon a characteristic tempo and measure. The Purple Society of Teachers of Dancing defines the tango, for case, as to exist danced in ²
_iv time at approximately 66 beats per infinitesimal. The basic slow stride forwards or backwards, lasting for ane vanquish, is chosen a "slow", and so that a full "right–left" step is equal to 1 ²
₄ measure out.^[47] (Run across Rhythm and dance.)

Notation of three measures of a clave blueprint preceded past one measure out of steady quarter notes. This blueprint is noted in double time relative to the one above, in one instead of two iv-beat measures.

Iv beats followed past iii clave patterns

The general classifications of metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and complimentary rhythm may be distinguished.^[48] Metrical or divisive rhythm, past far the most common in Western music calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of the shell. Normal accents re-occur regularly providing systematical grouping (measures). Measured rhythm (condiment rhythm) also calculates each fourth dimension value as a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit of measurement just the accents do non recur regularly inside the cycle. Free rhythm is where at that place is neither,^[48] such as in Christian dirge, which has a basic pulse but a freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse.^[15] See Gratuitous fourth dimension (music).

Finally some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such every bit Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric.^[49] Senza misura is an Italian musical term for "without meter", pregnant to play without a beat, using time to mensurate how long it will take to play the bar.^[fifty]

Blended rhythm [edit]

A composite rhythm is the durations and patterns (rhythm) produced by amalgamating all sounding parts of a musical texture. In music of the common do catamenia, the blended rhythm usually confirms the meter, frequently in metric or even-note patterns identical to the pulse on a specific metric level. White defines composite rhythm equally, "the resultant overall rhythmic joint among all the voices of a contrapuntal texture".^[51] This concept was concurrently defined as "set on betoken rhythm" by Maury Yeston in 1976 as "the extreme rhythmic foreground of a composition – the absolute surface of articulated movement".^[52]

African music [edit]

A Griot performs at Diffa, Niger, W Africa. The Griot is playing a Ngoni or Xalam.

In the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. Babatunde Olatunji (1927–2003) developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand-drum, using half dozen vocal sounds, "Goon, Doon, Go, Exercise, Pa, Ta", for iii basic sounds on the drum, each played with either the left or the right paw.^{[ citation needed ]} The debate most the appropriateness of staff notation for African music is a subject of detail interest to outsiders while African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo have, for the near part, accepted the conventions and limitations of staff notation, and produced transcriptions to inform and enable give-and-take and contend.^[53]

John Miller^[54] has argued that West African music is based on the tension between rhythms, polyrhythms created by the simultaneous sounding of 2 or more different rhythms, by and large one dominant rhythm interacting with ane or more than independent competing rhythms. These oft oppose or complement each other and the dominant rhythm. Moral values underpin a musical system based on repetition of relatively simple patterns that run into at distant cantankerous-rhythmic intervals and on call-and-response course. Collective utterances such every bit proverbs or lineages appear either in phrases translated into "drum talk" or in the words of songs. People expect musicians to stimulate participation by reacting to people dancing. Appreciation of musicians is related to the effectiveness of their upholding community values.^[55]

Indian music [edit]

Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases earlier attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based on her singing these patterns. In Indian classical music, the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic blueprint over which the whole piece is structured.

Western music [edit]

In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich wrote more than rhythmically circuitous music using odd meters, and techniques such as phasing and additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular shell, leading somewhen to the widespread use of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This use may exist explained by a annotate of John Cage's where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the chop-chop changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings.^[56] La Monte Young too wrote music in which the sense of a regular shell is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones (drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with Leon Theremin to invent the rhythmicon, the first electronic rhythm auto, in society to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the role player piano.

Linguistics [edit]

In linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is i of the three aspects of prosody, forth with stress and intonation. Languages can be categorized according to whether they are syllable-timed, mora-timed, or stress-timed. Speakers of syllable-timed languages such as Spanish and Cantonese put roughly equal time on each syllable; in dissimilarity, speakers of stressed-timed languages such as English and Mandarin Chinese put roughly equal fourth dimension lags betwixt stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in betwixt them existence adjusted to adjust the stress timing.

Narmour^[57] describes three categories of prosodic rules that create rhythmic successions that are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-curt). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for syncopation and suggests the concept of transformation.^[58]

References [edit]

1. ^ Liddell and Scott 1996.
2. ^ Anon. 1971, 2537.
3. ^ Cooper and Meyer 1960, half-dozen.
4. ^ Jirousek 1995.
5. ^ Yeston 1976.
6. ^ ^{a b} Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983.
7. ^ Hasty 1997.
8. ^ Toussaint 2005.
9. ^ Rothstein 1989.
10. ^ Lester 1986.
11. ^ Goodall 2006, 0:03:10.
12. ^ Patel 2014, 1.
13. ^ London 2004, 4.
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Scholes 1977b.
15. ^ ^{a b c d} Scholes 1977c.
16. ^ Jordania 2011, 99–101.
17. ^ Pieslak 2009,^{[ folio needed ]}.
18. ^ Betimes. 2009.
19. ^ Patel 2006, cited in Sacks 2007, 239–240
20. ^ Sacks 2007, 239–240.
21. ^ Mithen 2005,^{[ folio needed ]}.
22. ^ Cooper and Meyer 1960, 2.
23. ^ Berry 1987, 349.
24. ^ Fitch and Rosenfeld 2007, 44.
25. ^ ^{a b} Winold 1975, 213.
26. ^ Handel 1989.
27. ^ Yeston 1976, 50–52.
28. ^ Lester 1986, 77.
29. ^ Winold 1975, 239.
30. ^ ^{a b} MacPherson 1930, five.
31. ^ Slatkin n.d., at five:05.
32. ^ Winold 1975, 237.
33. ^ ^{a b c} Moravcsik 2002, 114.
34. ^ Fraisse 1956^{[ page needed ]}; Woodrow 1951^{[ page needed ]}, both quoted in Covaciu-Pogorilowski n.d.
35. ^ MacPherson 1930,^{[ page needed ]}.
36. ^ ^{a b} MacPherson 1930, 3.
37. ^ Roads 2001.
38. ^ Schaeffer 1959. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchaeffer1959 (assistance)
39. ^ Schaeffer 1977. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchaeffer1977 (aid)
40. ^ Tanguiane 1993.
41. ^ Tanguiane 1994, pp. 465–502.
42. ^ Skrjabin 1960.
43. ^ Tanguiane 1994, p. 480.
44. ^ Latham 2002.
45. ^ Winold 1975, 209–210.
46. ^ Holst 1963, 17.
47. ^ Imperial Club of Teachers of Dancing 1977,^{[ page needed ]}.
48. ^ ^{a b} Cooper 1973, 30.
49. ^ Karpinski 2000, 19.
50. ^ Forney and Machlis 2007,^{[ page needed ]}.
51. ^ White 1976, 136.
52. ^ Yeston 1976, 41–42.
53. ^ Agawu 2003, 52.
54. ^ Chernoff 1979.
55. ^ Chernoff 1979,^{[ page needed ]}.
56. ^ Sandow 2004, 257.
57. ^ Narmour 1977, cited in Winold 1975,^{[ folio needed ]}
58. ^ Middleton 1990,^{[ page needed ]}.

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• Moravcsik, Michael J. (2002). Musical Audio: An Introduction to the Physics of Music. New York: Kluwer Bookish/Plenum Publishers. ISBN 978-0-306-46710-3.
• Narmour, Eugene. Beyond Schenkerism: The Need for Alternatives in Music Assay. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Printing, 1977. Phoenix paperback edition 1980. ISBN 978-0-226-56847-eight (cloth); ISBN 978-0-226-56848-5 (paperback).
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006). "Musical Rhythm, Linguistic Rhythm, and Man Evolution". Music Perception. Berkeley, California: Academy of California Press. 24 (one): 99–104. doi:10.1525/mp.2006.24.1.99. ISSN 0730-7829.
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (25 March 2014). "The Evolutionary Biology of Musical Rhythm: Was Darwin Wrong?". PLOS Biology. 12 (3): e1001821. doi:10.1371/periodical.pbio.1001821. PMC3965380. PMID 24667562.
• Pieslak, Jonathan (2009). Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Republic of iraq State of war. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.
• Roads, Curtis (2001). Microsound. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Printing. ISBN 978-0-262-18215-vii, 978-0-262-68154-iv
• Rothstein, William (1989). Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 9780028721910.
• Sacks, Oliver (2007). "19. Keeping Time: Rhythm and Motion". Musicophilia, Tales of Music and the Brain. New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 233–247. ISBN978-i-4000-4081-0.
• Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness". In The Pleasure of Modernist Music: Listening, Pregnant, Intention, Ideology, edited by Arved Mark Ashby, 253–258. ISBN i-58046-143-3. Reprinted from The Village Vocalism (16 March 1982).
• Scholes, Percy (1977b). "Metre", in The Oxford Companion to Music, sixth corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford Academy Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-six.
• Scholes, Percy (1977c). "Rhythm", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford Academy Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-6.
• Slatkin, Leonard. n.d. "Discovering Music: Rhythm with Leonard Slatkin".
• Skrjabin, Alexander (1960). Poem for piano, Op. 32, No. 1. Transcribed by P. Lobanov. Moscow: Gosudarstvennoye Muzykalnoye Izdatelstvo.
• Tanguiane, Andranick (1993). Bogus Perception and Music Recognition. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence. Vol. 746. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN978-3-540-57394-4.
• Tanguiane, Andranick (1994). "A principle of correlativity of perception and its application to music recognition". Music Perception. 11 (4): 465–502. doi:10.2307/40285634. JSTOR 40285634.
• Toussaint, Godfried T. 2005. "The Geometry of Musical Rhythm". In Proceedings of the Nippon Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, vol. 3742: Lecture Notes in Computer Science, edited by J. Akiyama, Thou. Kano, and X. Tan, 198–212. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
• White, John David. (1976). The Assay of Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
• Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music". In Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, edited by Gary Wittlich, 208–269. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-xiii-049346-v.
• Woodrow, Herbert. "Time Perception". In A Handbook of Experimental Psychology, edited past Stanley Smith Stevens,^{[ page needed ]}. New York: Wiley, 1951.
• Yeston, Maury. 1976. The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Oasis and London: Yale Academy Printing. ISBN 0-300-01884-iii.

Further reading [edit]

• Giger, Peter (1993). Die Kunst des Rhythmus, Schott Music. A theoretical approach to western and non-western rhythms. ISBN 978-3-7957-1862-6
• Honing, H. (2002). "Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing". Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory]. vii (3): 227–232. Archived from the original on 2012-12-08.
• Humble, M. (2002). The Development of Rhythmic Organization in Indian Classical Music, MA dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
• Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm—What information technology is and How to Meliorate Your Sense of It. San Francisco: RhythmSource Press. ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4.
• Mazzola, Guerino (2017). The Topos of Music, Vol. I. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-iii-319-64364-9.
• Percival, Harold W. (1946). Thinking and Destiny. The Give-and-take Foundation. ISBN978-0-911650-06-8.
• Palmer, John (2013). Rhythm to Go, Vision Edition and CE Books. A fast-track collection of graded exercises from unproblematic to advanced level divided in four sections and including an additional chapter with rhythmic structures used in contemporary music. ISMN 979-0-9002315-1-2
• Petersen, Peter (2013). Music and Rhythm: Fundamentals, History, Assay. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-three-631-64393-viii
• Scholes, Percy (1977a). "Form", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-6.
• Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection—Music), Cambridge University Press; first edition, 2009.
• Van Der, Horst F. (1963). Maat en Ritme, Broekmans & Van Poppel, ISBN 9789491906008. A collection of graded exercises in two volumes, from elementary to advanced level.
• Yeston, Maury (Fall 1975). "Rubato and the Middleground". Journal of Music Theory. xix (2): 286–301. doi:ten.2307/843592. JSTOR 843592.

External links [edit]

Look up rhythm in Wiktionary, the free lexicon.

• 'Rhythm of Prose', William Morrison Patterson ,Columbia Academy Printing 1917
• Melodyhound has a "Query by Tapping" search that allows users to identify music based on rhythm
• Louis Hébert, "A Little Semiotics of Rhythm. Elements of Rhythmology", in Signo

harrisontharty.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm

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